The Value of Plants in Solving Crimes

            A major aspect of crime scene investigation is the collection of evidence. Plants are likely not the first thing to come to mind when considering valuable evidence for solving a murder. One probably thinks of other types of evidence, such as blood, fingerprints, weapons, or shoe prints. Those are examples of more commonly encountered evidence. However, forensic botany can also provide significant information about a crime that was committed. The anatomy, taxonomy, and ecology of plants are some features of botanical evidence that can be analyzed. The identification of plant species can link the suspect to the crime scene or indicate if the body was moved from one location to another. Additionally, the time a body was buried or left at a site can potentially be determined using plant material.

            Forensic botany involves the use of plants to aid criminal investigations. In 1992, plant DNA was used to solve a murder investigation in Arizona. It was the first time that plant DNA typing was legally accepted as evidence. The body of a woman was discovered in the Arizona desert underneath a Palo Verde tree. A suspect, Mark Bogan, was identified using a beeper found near the body. In the back of his truck, there were seed pods from a Palo Verde tree. Could DNA analysis match the seed pods in the back of his truck to the tree the body was found under? Dr. T. Helentjaris set out to find the answer. A technique called Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was used to analyze the evidence and a band pattern was produced. He also analyzed seed pods collected from other Palo Verde trees throughout Maricopa County to find out if the band patterns of the seed pods were specific to individual Palo Verde trees. He concluded that the seed pods collected from Bogan’s truck came from the tree at the crime scene. He testified in court, and Bogan was convicted of first degree murder.

            Often, botanical trace evidence does not have enough features, especially when the plant material is deteriorated, to identify the genus or species of the plant, so DNA technology is used. Dr. Robert Bever and the Bode Technology Group, Inc. are working on creating molecular methods for analyzing botanical trace evidence, which can be very useful for linking evidence and/or suspects to the crime scene. Using plant systematics, many loci that aid in the identification of plants have been characterized, which include several nuclear (18S, ITS1, ITS2) and chloroplast (rbcL, atpB, ndhF) genes. A DNA extraction, cloning, and sequencing procedure for identifying plants has been created by the Bode Technology Group, Inc. using some of those genes. Applying these methods, many plant species have been identified from physical evidence, such as algae, evergreens, and flowering herbs, shrubs, and trees. Some plants are located in very specific areas in which botanical trace evidence could be extremely valuable for establishing linkage.

            I provided one example of how plant material can be used as forensic evidence, but the attached article contains many more cases that exemplify the impact botanical evidence can have in solving crimes. Many of these investigations would likely not have been solved without the collection of plant materials as evidence. This emphasizes the importance of considering all types of items and materials as evidence because the seemingly smallest piece of evidence could be the key to solving the crime. Hopefully more attention will be given to this type of evidence when analyzing crime scenes given the impact it could have on the investigation.

References:

http://www.cmj.hr/2001/42/3/11387649.pdf

http://www.denverda.org/DNA_Documents/bogan.pdf

A Combined Therapy Technique for Treating Cancer

Many people are diagnosed with cancer every day or have loved ones who have suffered from all different types of cancer. With so many people battling cancer, effective treatment strategies are crucial. Chemotherapy is one type of current cancer treatment that is widely used. However, it has its drawbacks. Patients experience many harmful side effects because the drugs target both cancerous and healthy cells. Photothermal therapy (PTT) is an emerging technique that has shown to be effective in killing cancer cells. It uses electromagnetic energy (usually in near infrared wavelength) to excite light sensitizers (such as noble metals, carbon materials, or organic polymers and molecules). When excited, they release vibrational energy in the form of heat, which kills the cancer cells. This technique is especially favorable because it is selective, targeting the cancer cells and leaving healthy cells alone. Therefore, it is noninvasive and much safer. Adverse side effects are severely diminished. However, PTT does not always destroy all the cancer cells, which can result in relapses.

            The limitations of these treatments lead researchers to consider a combined treatment therapy that involves chemotherapy and PTT. Studies have shown that heat can improve the effectiveness of chemotherapy, so researchers have focused on the cancer treatments that combine chemotherapy and PTT. Tu et. al developed carbon nanoparticles (CNPs)/doxorubicin@SiO₂ nanocomposites via reverse microemulsion, while also controlling the size and high drug loading ratio, to deliver the drugs using the combined methodology. The nanocomposites are a good platform for delivery due to their ability to generate high heat, perform pH responsive drug delivery, and release a high amount of drugs when induced by heat. Mice were injected with 4T1 tumor cells. They were treated using each therapy separately and combined. For the single therapy, the tumors continually grew throughout 14 days of treatment. When the treatment techniques were combined, the tumors were completely eradicated six days after the treatment. These results exhibit the effectiveness of a combined therapy approach for cancer treatment.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the strategy for the synthesis and combined photothermal and chemo-therapy of CNPs/Dox@SiO₂ NCs.

This research is very important given the prevalence of cancer throughout the world. In the United States alone, approximately 1,685,210 cancer cases will be diagnosed and 595,690 deaths from cancer will occur in 2016 (American Cancer Society). With the large incidence of cancer diagnoses and cancer deaths, the demand for newer, safer, and more effective treatments is great. This study introduces an alternative technique for cancer treatment that combines chemotherapy and photothermal therapy with the use of carbon nanoparticles (CNPs)/doxorubicin@SiO₂ nanocomposites to deliver the drugs. This is a more effective technique due to the selective targeting of cancer cites. This therapy would produce significantly fewer side effects for patients. Additionally, the method’s ability to eradicate the entire tumor severely decreases the chances that the patient will have a recurrence of the cancer. This methodology also has such a huge impact because it can be used on all types of cancer.

References:

http://www.cancer.org/research/cancerfactsstatistics/index

Xiaolong Tu, Lina Wang, Yuhua Cao, Yufei Ma, He Shen, Mengxin Zhang, and Zhijun Zhang. "Efficient cancer ablation by combined photothermal and enhanced chemo-therapy based on carbon nanoparticles/doxorubicin@SiO2 nanocomposites." Carbon. Volume 97, 35-44, February 2016. http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.shsu.edu/science/article/pii/S0008622315004406

Does an apple a day really keep the doctor away?

            I love apples, and I eat one every day with my lunch. The saying “an apple a day keeps the doctor away” often comes to mind. This lead me to think: is it actually true? So I did some research and this is what I found.

            In 2000, researchers at Cornell University found that eating an apple a day does help keep the doctor away, publishing their work in the scientific journal, Nature. They found that phytochemicals, mostly found in apple’s skin, provide anticancer and antioxidant benefits. They also claim that eating whole fruits and vegetables provides more health benefits than vitamin supplements. Cornell’s Food Science and Toxicology department studies found that the antioxidant properties in a fresh apple were equal to 1,500 milligrams of Vitamin C.

            Liu et. al looked at the difference in effects on cancer cell growth between the apple’s skin and its flesh. Colon cancer cells were treated with apple extract from the skin and flesh of a Red Delicious apple. The cancer cell growth was decreased by 43 % using 50 milligrams of the apple skin extract, while only 29 % of the cancer cell growth decreased when using the apple extract without the skin. The extracts were also tested on liver cancer cell growth. Similar results were obtained, with the apple extract from the skin and flesh decreasing cancer cell growth by 57 % and 40 %, respectively.

A more recent article on the topic was published in the Journal of Functional Foods in 2013. Zhao et. al discussed how apple consumption decreased plasma concentrations of oxidized low-density lipoprotein/beta₂-glycoprotein I complex (oxLDL-β₂GPI), which is a contributor to atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a condition characterized by fatty plaques in the arteries, which can lead to cardiac events such as heart attack and stroke.

These studies show that apples can indeed help keep the doctor away!

References:

http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/news/20000621/benefits-of-eating-fruit#1

Eberhardt, M. V., Lee, C. Y., and Liu, R. H. Antioxidant activity of fresh apples. Nature 405(6789): 903-904, 2000.

Link to abstract: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v405/n6789/full/405903b0.html

Shi Zhao, Joshua Bomser, Elizabeth L. Joseph, and Robert A. DiSilvestro. Intakes of apples or apple polyphenols decease plasma values for oxidized low-density lipoprotein/beta₂-glycoprotein I complex. Journal of Functional Foods. Volume 5, Issue 1, 493-497, January 2013.

http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.shsu.edu/science/article/pii/S1756464612001363

Designing a Universal Influenza Vaccine

           Influenza (flu) is a contagious respiratory disease caused by a family of RNA viruses, which belong to the family Orthomyxoviridae. The most effective preventative measure for influenza viruses is vaccination. The three genera of Orthomyxoviridae are influenza types A, B, and C. Only influenza A can lead to both seasonal epidemics and pandemic strains. Type B influenza viruses change by the process of antigenic drift. The flu is constantly evolving, and one way it changes is through antigenic drift, which is when changes in the genes occur as the influenza virus replicates. Additionally, the accumulation of these genetic changes over time results in the production of viruses with different antigenic properties, which the seasonal flu vaccines account for. Therefore, a new flu vaccine with a different composition is created annually to parallel the evolution of the viruses. It targets strains of influenza A and B that will likely be present in future flu seasons. Pandemic strains are caused by antigenic shift, which is when a new influenza A virus is created due to major, sudden changes in the previous virus. Most people do not have antibodies to fight off the new virus. One example is the 2009 H1N1 virus. A completely new virus formed and quickly spread, creating a pandemic.

            The authors of an article published in the journal Bioinformatics designed a universal flu vaccine to target multiple strains at once, which would help fight the more basic strains before they turn into pandemics. The researches designed two epitope ensemble vaccines that offer wide coverage of the different subtypes of the virus. One targets the US population, and the other is a universal vaccine. The US-specific vaccine covers 95% of observed influenza subtypes. The universal vaccine covers 88 % of universal subtypes. The ultimate goal of a “universal” vaccine is to protect against most influenza A subtypes, if not all. Accomplishing such broad protection is challenging due to the constantly changing influenza viruses. More studies must be conducted on this topic before we would have a true “universal” vaccine for the flu. However, this research is promising for the future of influenza vaccine development. It could lead to new strategies in design to offer broader, more effective vaccines that last longer.



References:

http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/disease/index.htm

Qamar M. Sheikh, Derek Gatherer, Pedro A Reche, Darren R. Flower. Towards the knowledge-based design of universal influenza epitope ensemble vaccines. Bioinformatics, 2016; btw399 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btw399

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/09/160930085814.htm

 

Specific Fungus Yields Information about the Development of Crohn’s Disease

            Crohn’s disease is an inflammatory disease that affects the digestive tract. Symptoms include severe abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, and fatigue. The disease results from the immune system responding abnormally to gut microbial antigens. Previous studies have concentrated on the bacterial community in the intestines. The authors conducted studies that focused on the overlooked fungal community.

            The researchers analyzed fecal samples from patients with and without Crohn’s disease. The samples from those with Crohn’s disease contained strong fungal-bacterial interactions, specifically two bacteria (Escherichia coli and Serratia marcescens) and one fungus (Candida tropicalis). Additionally, Candida tropicalis was more abundant in patients with Crohn’s disease than their relatives who did not have the disease. They also found that the abundance of beneficial bacteria decreased in Crohn’s disease patients.

            This study shows for the first time that bacterial species in the gut, as well as fungi, play a role in the disease. They discovered how the bacteria and fungi interact. Together, they form a biofilm, which is a thin, sticky layer of microorganisms. The film attaches to sections of the gut, which could be triggering the inflammation that causes the symptoms attributed to Crohn’s disease. The researchers also are the first to include Serratia marcescens as a contributor. In a previous study conducted by another research group (Ochieng et al.), S. marcescens was revealed to interact with epithelial cells of the intestine in cultures and produce effects that could play a large role in Crohn’s disease by worsening the episodes of inflammation in the intestine.

A person’s diet and environment also contribute to the microorganisms present in the intestines. However, the addition of new information regarding the role bacteria and fungi play in the development of Crohn’s disease opens the door for the development of new treatments. More research must be done, but as more is learned about the disease, more can be done to help those suffering from it.

Resources:

To learn more about Crohn’s disease visit: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0022801/

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/09/160920151435.htm

References:

G. Hoarau, P. K. Mukherjee, C. Gower-Rousseau, C. Hager, J. Chandra, M. A. Retuerto, C. Neut, S. Vermeire, J. Clemente, J. F. Colombel, H. Fujioka, D. Poulain, B. Sendid and M. A. Ghannoum. Bacteriome and Mycobiome Interactions Underscore Microbial Dysbiosis in Familial Crohn’s Disease. mBio, September 2016 DOI: 10.1128/mBio.01250-16

John B Ochieng, Nadia Boisen, Brianna Lindsay, Araceli Santiago, Collins Ouma, Maurice Ombok, Barry Fields, O Colin Stine, and James P Nataro. Serratia marcescens is injurious to intestinal epithelial cells. Gut Microbes. 5.6, 2014.

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.4161/19490976.2014.972223

The Use of Magnetic Bacteria in Drug Delivery

A recent article published in the journal Nature Nanotechnology shows that using magnetic bacteria could be a more successful method for delivering drugs to tumors. The major issue encountered when designing cancer therapies is finding a way to deliver chemotherapy drugs to only the tumors, keeping healthy tissues unaffected. Nanocarriers, which are small particles that transfer drugs, have been developed to do just that. As they circulate through the body, they target only the cancer cells. However, since they depend on the circulatory system to travel to the tumor, a large portion is filtered out of the body and never reaches the tumor. They also have trouble getting inside the tumor due to a difference in pressure between the tumor and its surrounding tissue. Therefore, the nanocarriers never reach the hypoxic zones of the tumor, which are the site of active cell division. These zones have very low oxygen content. If a procedure can be found to deliver the drugs to these regions, the metastasis rate will greatly decrease. That is what the authors set out to do.

            The researchers found that a bacteria known as magnetococcus marinus (MC-1), which is already present in nature, could be used since they thrive in areas of water with low oxygen. MC-1 contains a chain of magnetic nanocrystals, which work like the needle of a compass. When in the Northern Hemisphere, the nanocrystals cause the bacteria to travel in a northern direction. MC-1 is also comprised of sensors that can detect changes in oxygen levels. These two components aid the bacteria in finding the tumor and sustaining their location in the low oxygen area. Once reaching the tumor, the magnetic field is turned off. The bacteria then rely on the sensors to locate the hypoxic zones.

            Experiments were performed to test the use of MC-1 as a treatment for tumors. The study was conducted on mice, and they found that the bacterial cells were located deep inside the tumor, specifically in low oxygen areas. Then, the researchers attached vesicles, containing the drugs, to the cells to test their effect on penetration into the tumors. An estimated 55 % of the cells with attached vesicles successfully traveled into the tumor versus current nanocarriers only transporting about 2% of the drugs into the tumor. This exhibits the effectiveness of the method and proves promising for the treatment of tumors.

            The researchers plan to look at the effect of the bacterial cells on tumor size reduction. They also want to investigate if other types of cancer-killing medicines can be delivered via MC-1. This study provides advancements in current methods that have huge implications for those suffering from cancer. Drug delivery that specifically targets the tumors diminishes side effects and makes the treatment more successful. This research and future studies stemming from it will provide enormous potential for improved cancer treatment.

Reference:

Magneto-aerotactic bacteria deliver drug-containing nanoliposomes to tumour hypoxic regions. Felfoul O, Mohammadi M, Taherkhani S de Lanauze D, Zhong Xu Y, Loghin D, Essa S Jancik S, Houle D, Lafleur M, Gaboury L, Tabrizian M Kaou N, Atkin , Vuong T, Batist G, Beauchemin N, Radzioch D, Martel S. Nat Nanotechnol. 2016 Aug 15.

Link to the abstract: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27525475

National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering Resource: http://www.nibib.nih.gov/news-events/newsroom/swarms-magnetic-bacteria-could-be-used-deliver-drugs-tumors

 

A Patient-Specific Approach to Treating Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

Lung diseases are the third leading cause of death in the United States. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is one type of lung disease. This disease causes scarring on the lungs, making it difficult to breathe. There is no cure for IPF, and the shortage in human disease models has delayed advancements in available therapies. The study by Wilkinson et al introduces a method to create tissue-engineered organoids that can lead to a deeper understanding of the biology of the disease. The authors improve on previous methods of creating lung tissue by presenting a technique that generates patient-specific lung organoids, which can undergo high throughput screening. Lung organoids were formed using stem cells from adult lungs and alginate beads. The adhesion of the cells to the beads results in lung organoids that imitate actual lungs. The authors tested their engineered lung to see if it functioned like a real one, and they successfully found scarring on the lung organoid that resembled IPF. The researchers also found that organoids could be produced from other cell types.

Given the lack of available models, this research presents a significant breakthrough. The most valuable aspect of this method is that it is patient-specific. The disease affects each person differently, so one treatment can’t be used for everyone. Using the lung organoids, doctors can see how a patient’s body will react to different drugs and provide personalized treatment. Since the organoids can be generated so quickly, multiple drugs can be screened at once. This will provide faster determinations of the medication best suited for each patient. The quicker they can get the proper medication, the better.

This technique can be helpful for not only IPF, but other lung diseases as well. This type of research holds even further implications for the future, specifically for transplants. Patients could have a transplant of an organ that was created using their own cells. The patient would not have to be put on a list to wait for a donor organ to become available. It would also be safer because receiving an organ generated from the patient’s cells severely diminishes the chance his or her body will reject it.

Here is a link if you would like to read more about idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis:
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/idiopathic-pulmonary-fibrosis

 

Reference:
http://stemcellstm.alphamedpress.org/content/early/2016/09/14/sctm.2016-0192.short?rss=1